Basa Hindustani
Basa Hindustani joda da salah osay basa say dituturko di anak banua India rik Pakistan, Basa hasa joda da Bahasa Plurisentris say dipa uwat ruwa bontuk standar joda da Bahasa Hindi say lamon pangaruh jak Bahasa Sanskerta, rik Bahasa Urdu say lamon pangaruh jak Bahasa Persia rik Arab, jadi risok munih tisobut sabagay Hindi-Urdu, zaman ganta Hinglish tikuruk variasi ketigo jak basa hasa.
Cuntuh Tulisan
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Di bah sa uwat ruwa bontuk tulisan jak ruwa bontuk standar basa Hindustani, joda da basa Hindi di India rik Bahasa Urdu di Pakistan.
Aksara Devanagari |
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[11] |
Transliterasi Urdu |
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Transliterasi (ISO 15919) |
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Transkripsi IPA |
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Horti (Komering) |
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Horti (Inggris) |
|
Nastaliq |
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Transliterasi Devanagari |
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Transliterasi (ISO 15919) |
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Transkripsi IPA |
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Horti (Komering) |
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Horti (Inggris) |
|
Pabandingan Bahasa Hindi rik Urdu
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Diwanagari (Hindi) | Nastaliq (Urdu) |
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[12] |
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Transliterasi Urdu | Transliterasi Diwanagari |
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Transliterasi Hindi | Transliterasi Urdu |
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|
Transkripsi IPA | |
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Horti (Komering) | |
| |
Horti (Inggris) | |
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Huruf
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Diwanagori
[dandani | dandani sumbor]अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ə | aː | ɪ | iː | ʊ | uː | eː | ɛː | oː | ɔː |
क | क़ | ख | ख़ | ग | ग़ | घ | ङ | ||
k | q | kʰ | x | ɡ | ɣ | ɡʱ | ŋ | ||
च | छ | ज | ज़ | झ | झ़ | ञ | |||
t͡ʃ | t͡ʃʰ | d͡ʒ | z | d͡ʒʱ | ʒ | ɲ[13] | |||
ट | ठ | ड | ड़ | ढ | ढ़ | ण | |||
ʈ | ʈʰ | ɖ | ɽ | ɖʱ | ɽʱ | ɳ | |||
त | थ | द | ध | न | |||||
t̪/t | tʰ | d̪/d | dʱ | n | |||||
प | फ | फ़ | ब | भ | म | ||||
p | pʰ | f | b | bʱ | m | ||||
य | र | ल | व | श | ष | स | ह | ||
j | ɾ | l | ʋ | ʃ | ʂ | s | ɦ |
Tabol Barakhadi
[dandani | dandani sumbor]a | ā | i | ī | u | ū | e | ai | o | au | aṁ | aḥ | |
अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | अं | अः | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
k- | क | का | कि | की | कु | कू | के | कै | को | कौ | कं | कः |
kh- | ख | खा | खि | खी | खु | खू | खे | खै | खो | खौ | खं | खः |
g- | ग | गा | गि | गी | गु | गू | गे | गै | गो | गौ | गं | गः |
gh- | घ | घा | घि | घी | घु | घू | घे | घै | घो | घौ | घं | घः |
ṅ- | ङ | ङा | ङि | ङी | ङु | ङू | ङे | ङै | ङो | ङौ | ङं | ङः |
c- | च | चा | चि | ची | चु | चू | चे | चै | चो | चौ | चं | चः |
ch- | छ | छा | छि | छी | छु | छू | छे | छै | छो | छौ | छं | छः |
j- | ज | जा | जि | जी | जु | जू | जे | जै | जो | जौ | जं | जः |
jh- | झ | झा | झि | झी | झु | झू | झे | झै | झो | झौ | झं | झः |
ñ- | ञ | ञा | ञि | ञी | ञु | ञू | ञे | ञै | ञो | ञौ | ञं | ञः |
ṭ- | ट | टा | टि | टी | टु | टू | टे | टै | टो | टौ | टं | टः |
ṭh- | ठ | ठा | ठि | ठी | ठु | ठू | ठे | ठै | ठो | ठौ | ठं | ठः |
ḍ- | ड | डा | डि | डी | डु | डू | डे | डै | डो | डौ | डं | डः |
ḍh- | ढ | ढा | ढि | ढी | ढु | ढू | ढे | ढै | ढो | ढौ | ढं | ढः |
ṇ- | ण | णा | णि | णी | णु | णू | णे | णै | णो | णौ | णं | णः |
t- | त | ता | ति | ती | तु | तू | ते | तै | तो | तौ | तं | तः |
th- | थ | था | थि | थी | थु | थू | थे | थै | थो | थौ | थं | थः |
d- | द | दा | दि | दी | दु | दू | दे | दै | दो | दौ | दं | दः |
dh- | ध | धा | धि | धी | धु | धू | धे | धै | धो | धौ | धं | धः |
n- | न | ना | नि | नी | नु | नू | ने | नै | नो | नौ | नं | नः |
p- | प | पा | पि | पी | पु | पू | पे | पै | पो | पौ | पं | पः |
ph- | फ | फा | फि | फी | फु | फू | फे | फै | फो | फौ | फं | फः |
b- | ब | बा | बि | बी | बु | बू | बे | बै | बो | बौ | बं | बः |
bh- | भ | भा | भि | भी | भु | भू | भे | भै | भो | भौ | भं | भः |
m- | म | मा | मि | मी | मु | मू | मे | मै | मो | मौ | मं | मः |
y- | य | या | यि | यी | यु | यू | ये | यै | यो | यौ | यं | यः |
r- | र | रा | रि | री | रु | रू | रे | रै | रो | रौ | रं | रः |
l- | ल | ला | लि | ली | लु | लू | ले | लै | लो | लौ | लं | लः |
v- | व | वा | वि | वी | वु | वू | वे | वै | वो | वौ | वं | वः |
ś- | श | शा | शि | शी | शु | शू | शे | शै | शो | शौ | शं | शः |
ṣ- | ष | षा | षि | षी | षु | षू | षे | षै | षो | षौ | षं | षः |
s- | स | सा | सि | सी | सु | सू | से | सै | सो | सौ | सं | सः |
h- | ह | हा | हि | ही | हु | हू | हे | है | हो | हौ | हं | हः |
Konsonan
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Fonetik → | sparśa (Oklusif) |
anunāsika (Nasal) |
antastha (Aproksiman) |
ūṣman/saṃgharṣī (Frikatif) | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bubunyi → | aghoṣa | saghoṣa | aghoṣa | saghoṣa | ||||||||||||
Ngahisok → | alpaprāṇa | mahāprāṇa | alpaprāṇa | mahāprāṇa | alpaprāṇa | mahāprāṇa | ||||||||||
kaṇṭhya (Velar) |
क | ka [k] |
ख | kha [kʰ] |
ग | ga [ɡ] |
घ | gha [ɡʱ] |
ङ | ṅa [ŋ] |
ह | ha [ɦ] | ||||
tālavya (Palatal) |
च | ca [tʃ] |
छ | cha [tʃʰ] |
ज | ja [dʒ] |
झ | jha [dʒʱ] |
ञ | ña [ɲ] |
य | ya [j] |
श | śa [ʃ] |
||
mūrdhanya (Retrofleks) |
ट | ṭa [ʈ] |
ठ | ṭha [ʈʰ] |
ड | ḍa [ɖ] |
ढ | ḍha [ɖʱ] |
ण | ṇa [ɳ] |
र | ra [r] |
ष | ṣa [ʂ] | ||
dantya (Dental) |
त | ta [t̪] |
थ | tha [t̪ʰ] |
द | da [d̪] |
ध | dha [d̪ʱ] |
न | na [n] |
ल | la [l] |
स | sa [s] | ||
oṣṭhya (Labial) |
प | pa [p] |
फ | pha [pʰ] |
ब | ba [b] |
भ | bha [bʱ] |
म | ma [m] |
व | va [ʋ] |
Vokal
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Bontuk Posay | IAST | ISO | IPA | Diyakritik rik huruf पBarakhadi | Bontuk Posay | IAST | ISO | IPA | Diyakritik rik huruf पBarakhadi | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
kaṇṭhya (Guttural) |
अ | a | [ɐ] | प | आ | ā | [aː] | पा | ||||
tālavya (Palatal) |
इ | i | [i] | पि | ई | ī | [iː] | पी | ||||
oṣṭhya (Labial) |
उ | u | [u] | पु 6 | ऊ | ū | [uː] | पू 6 | ||||
mūrdhanya (Retrofleks) |
ऋ | ṛ | r̥ | [r̩] | पृ | ॠ 4 | ṝ | r̥̄ | [r̩ː] | पॄ | ||
dantya (Dental) |
ऌ 4 | ḷ | l̥ | [l̩] | पॢ | ॡ 4, 5 | ḹ | l̥̄ | [l̩ː] | पॣ | ||
kaṇṭhatālavya (Palatoguttural) |
ए | e | ē | [eː] | पे | ऐ | ai | [ɑj] | पै | |||
kaṇṭhoṣṭhya (Labioguttural) |
ओ | o | ō | [oː] | पो | औ | au | [ɑw] | पौ | |||
अं / ं 1,2 | ṃ | ṁ | [◌̃] | पं | अः / ः 1 | ḥ | [h] | पः | ||||
ॲ / ऍ 7 | ê | [æ] | पॅ | ऑ 7 | ô | [ɒ] | पॉ |
a | ā | ê | ô | i | ī | u | ū | e | ē | ai | o | ō | au | r̥ | r̥̄ | l̥ | l̥̄ | ṁ | ḥ | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
अ | आ | ॲ | ऑ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ऎ | ए | ऐ | ऒ | ओ | औ | ऋ | ॠ | ऌ | ॡ | अं | अः | |
ा | ॅ | ॉ | ि | ी | ु | ू | ॆ | े | ै | ॊ | ो | ौ | ृ | ॄ | ॢ | ॣ | ं | ः | ् | |
ka | kā | kê | kô | ki | kī | ku | kū | ke | kē | kai | ko | kō | kau | kr̥ | kr̥̄ | kl̥ | kl̥̄ | kaṁ | kaḥ | k |
क | का | कॅ | कॉ | कि | की | कु | कू | कॆ | के | कै | कॊ | को | कौ | कृ | कॄ | कॢ | कॣ | कं | कः | क् |
Angka rik Bontuk Bahari
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Standar | Bahari |
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० | १ | २ | ३ | ४ | ५ | ६ | ७ | ८ | ९ |
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
Arab Urdu
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Huruf | Golar Huruf | Transliterasi | IPA |
---|---|---|---|
ا | alif | a, ā, i, atawa u | ə, aː, ɪ, atawa ʊ |
ب | be | b | b |
پ | pe | p | p |
ت | te | t | t̪/t |
ٹ | ṭe | ṭ | ʈ |
ث | se | s | s |
ج | jīm | j | d͡ʒ |
چ | che | c | t͡ʃ |
ح | baṛī he | h̤ | /h ~ ɦ/ |
خ | khe | k͟h | x |
د | dāl | d | d̪/d |
ڈ | ḍāl | ḍ | ɖ |
ذ | zāl | z | z |
ر | re | r | /r ~ ɾ/ |
ڑ | ṛe | ṛ | ɽ |
ز | ze | z | z |
ژ | zhe | ž | ʒ |
س | sīn | s | s |
ش | shīn | sh | ʃ |
ص | su'ād | s̤ | s |
ض | zu'ād | ż | z |
ط | to'e | t̤ | t |
ظ | zo'e | ẓ | z |
ع | ‘ain | ‘ | – |
غ | ghayn | ġ | ɣ |
ف | fe | f | f |
ق | qāf | q | q |
ک | kāf | k | k |
گ | gāf | g | ɡ |
ل | lām | l | l |
م | mīm | m | m |
ن | nūn | n | n |
ں | nūn ghunna | ṁ atawa m̐ | ◌̃ |
و | wā'o | w, v, ō, atawa ū | ʋ, oː, ɔ atawa uː |
ہ | choṭī he | h | /h ~ ɦ/ |
ھ | do chashmī he | h | ʰ atawa ʱ |
ء | hamza | ' | ʔ |
ی | ye | y atawa ī | j atawa iː |
ے | baṛī ye | ay atawa ē | ɛː, atawa eː |
Golar Huruf rik Fonom
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Golar | Bontuk | IPA | Latin | Unicode | Order | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urdu Latin Urdu |
Posay | Uncuk | Tongah-tongah | Pangkal | ALA-LC[14] | Hunterian[15] | [16] | [17] | [18] | ||
الف alif |
ا | ـا | /ɑː/, /ʔ/, rokop | ā, – | ā, – | U+0627 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
بے bē |
ب | ـب | ـبـ | بـ | /b/ | b | b | U+0628 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
پے pē |
پ | ـپ | ـپـ | پـ | /p/ | p | p | U+067E | 3 | 3 | 3 |
تے tē |
ت | ـت | ـتـ | تـ | /t/ | t | t | U+062A | 4 | 4 | 4 |
ٹے ṭē |
ٹ | ـٹ | ـٹـ | ٹـ | /ʈ/ | ṭ | t | U+0679 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
ثے s̱ē |
ث | ـث | ـثـ | ثـ | /s/ | s̱ | s | U+062B | 6 | 6 | 6 |
جيم jīm |
ج | ـج | ـجـ | جـ | /d͡ʒ/ | j | j | U+062C | 7 | 7 | 7 |
چے cē |
چ | ـچ | ـچـ | چـ | /t͡ʃ/ | c | ch | U+0686 | 8 | 8 | 8 |
بڑی حے baṛī ḥē |
ح | ـح | ـحـ | حـ | /ɦ/ | ḥ | h | U+062D | 9 | 9 | 9 |
حائے حطی ḥā'e huttī | |||||||||||
حائے مہملہ ḥā'e muhmala | |||||||||||
خے k͟hē |
خ | ـخ | ـخـ | خـ | /x/ | k͟h | kh | U+062E | 10 | 10 | 10 |
دال dāl |
د | ـد | /d/ | d | d | U+062F | 11 | 11 | 11 | ||
ڈال ḍāl |
ڈ | ـڈ | /ɖ/ | ḍ | d | U+0688 | 12 | 12 | 12 | ||
ذال ẕāl |
ذ | ـذ | /z/ | ẕ | z | U+0630 | 13 | 13 | 13 | ||
رے rē |
ر | ـر | /r/ | r | r | U+0631 | 14 | 14 | 14 | ||
ڑے ṛē |
ڑ | ـڑ | /ɽ/ | ṛ | r | U+0691 | 15 | 15 | 15 | ||
زے zē |
ز | ـز | /z/ | z | z | U+0632 | 16 | 16 | 16 | ||
ژے zhē |
ژ | ـژ | /ʒ/ | zh | zh | U+0698 | 17 | 17 | 17 | ||
سین sīn |
س | ـس | ـسـ | سـ | /s/ | s | s | U+0633 | 18 | 18 | 18 |
شین shīn |
ش | ـش | ـشـ | شـ | /ʃ/ | sh | sh | U+0634 | 19 | 19 | 19 |
صاد ṣwād |
ص | ـص | ـصـ | صـ | /s/ | ṣ | s | U+0635 | 20 | 20 | 20 |
ضاد ẓwād |
ض | ـض | ـضـ | ضـ | /z/ | ẓ | z | U+0636 | 21 | 21 | 21 |
طوے t̤o’ē |
ط | ـط | ـطـ | طـ | /t/ | t̤ | t | U+0637 | 22 | 22 | 22 |
ظوے z̤o’ē |
ظ | ـظ | ـظـ | ظـ | /z/ | z̤ | z | U+0638 | 23 | 23 | 23 |
عین ‘ain |
ع | ـع | ـعـ | عـ | /ɑː/, /oː/, /eː/, /ʔ/, /ʕ/, silent |
‘ | ‘ | U+0639 | 24 | 24 | 24 |
غین g͟hayn |
غ | ـغ | ـغـ | غـ | /ɣ/ | g͟h | gh | U+063A | 25 | 25 | 25 |
فے fē |
ف | ـف | ـفـ | فـ | /f/ | f | f | U+0641 | 26 | 26 | 26 |
قاف qāf |
ق | ـق | ـقـ | قـ | /q/ | q | q | U+0642 | 27 | 27 | 27 |
کاف kāf |
ک | ـک | ـکـ | کـ | /k/ | k | k | U+06A9 | 28 | 28 | 28 |
گاف gāf |
گ | ـگ | ـگـ | گـ | /ɡ/ | g | g | U+06AF | 29 | 29 | 29 |
لام lām |
ل | ـل | ـلـ | لـ | /l/ | l | l | U+0644 | 30 | 30 | 30 |
میم mīm |
م | ـم | ـمـ | مـ | /m/ | m | m | U+0645 | 31 | 31 | 31 |
نون nūn |
ن | ـن | ـنـ | نـ | /n/, /ɲ/, /ɳ/, /ŋ/ |
n | n | U+0646 | 32 | 32 | 32 |
نون غنّہ nūn g͟hunnā |
ں ٘ |
ـں | ـںـ | ںـ | / ◌̃ / | ṉ | n | U+06BA U+0658 |
32a | 33 | |
واؤ wā’o |
و | ـو | /ʋ/, /uː/, /ʊ/, /o ː/, /ɔː/ |
v, ū, u, o, au |
w, ū, u, o, au |
U+0648 | 33 | 33 | 34 | ||
ہے hē |
ہ | ـہ | ـہـ | ہـ | /ɦ/, /ɑː/, /eː/ | h, ā, e | h, ā, e | U+06C1 | 34 | 34 | 35 |
چھوٹی ہے choṭī hē |
34a | ||||||||||
دو چشمی ہے do-cashmī hē |
ھ | ـھ | ـھـ | ھـ | /ʰ/ atawa /ʱ/ | h | h | U+06BE | 35 | 34b | 36 |
یے yē |
ی | ـی | ـیـ | یـ | /j/, /iː/, /ɑː/ | y, ī, á | y, ī, á | U+06CC | 36 | 35 | 38 |
بڑی یے baṛī yē |
ے | ـے | /ɛː/, /eː/ | ai, e | ai, e | U+06D2 | 37 | 35b | 39 | ||
ہمزہ hamzah |
ئ | ـئ | ـئـ | ئـ | /ʔ/ atawa rokop | ’, –, yi | ’, –, yi | U+0626 | 35a | 37 | |
ء | U+0621 | 0 |
- Catatan:
- Hamzah: dilom Bahasa Urdu, hamzah rokop dilom sagala bontuk kacuwali ponah tipakay di hamzah-e-izafat. Pamakayan utama hamzah dilom Bahasa Urdu joda da untuk njajakko gugus vokal.
- Makka kata-kata dilom Bahasa Urdu say pangkalna makay huruf ں, ھ, ڑ, atawa ے.
Tabol
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Kalumpuk | Huruf | Golar | Unicode [19][20] | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nastaliq |
Naskh rik diakritik |
Latin Urdu atawa Basa Inggris [17][21] | ||||
Alif | آ | آ | الف مدہ | الِف مَدّه |
alif maddah |
U+0622 alif rik madda dinggak [20] |
Hamzah | ء | ء | ہمزہ | ہَمْزه |
hamzah | U+0621 hamza |
___ | ___ | |||||
ٔ | ــٔـ | ___ | ___ | diakritik hamzah | U+0654 Hamza Dinggak | |
ت | ت | تاء مفتوحة | تَاء مَفْتُوحَة | tāʼ maftūḥah "ta tibukak" |
U+062A Teh |
Digraf
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Digraf[14] | Transkripsi[14] | IPA | Cuntuh |
بھ | bh | [bʱ] | بھاری |
پھ | ph | [pʰ] | پھول |
تھ | th | [tʰ] | تھم |
ٹھ | ṭh | [ʈʰ] | ٹھنڈا |
جھ | jh | [d͡ʒʱ] | جھاڑی |
چھ | ch | [t͡ʃʰ] | چھتری |
دھ | dh | [dʱ] | دھوبی |
ڈھ | ḍh | [ɖʱ] | ڈھول |
رھ | rh | [rʱ] | تیرھواں |
ڑھ | ṛh | [ɽʱ] | اڑھائی |
کھ | kh | [kʰ] | کھانسی |
گھ | gh | [ɡʱ] | گھوڑا |
لھ | lh | [lʱ] | دولھا(alternatif jak دُلہا) |
مھ | mh | [mʱ] | تمھیں(alternatif jak تمہیں) |
نھ | nh | [nʱ] | ننھا(walawpun panday ticawako bih gugus konsonan) |
وھ | wh | [ʋʱ] | وھاب(walawpun panday ticawako bih gugus konsonan) |
یھ | yh | [jʱ] |
Huruf barih silaw jak Arab Persia
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Huruf | IPA |
---|---|
ٹ | /ʈ/ |
ڈ | /ɖ/ |
ڑ | /ɽ/ |
ں | /◌̃/ |
ے | /ɛ:/ atawa /e:/ |
Vokal
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Romanisasi | Pangucapan | Uncuk | Tongah-tongah | Pangkal |
---|---|---|---|---|
a | /ə/ | N/A | ـَ | اَ |
ā | /aː/ | ـَا، ـَی، ـَہ | ـَا | آ |
i | /ɪ/ | N/A | ـِ | اِ |
ī | /iː/ | ـِى | ـِیـ | اِی |
e | /eː/ | ـے | ـیـ | اے |
ai | /ɛː/ | ـَے | ـَیـ | اَے |
u | /ʊ/ | N/A | ـُ | اُ |
ū | /uː/ | ـُو | اُو | |
o | /oː/ | ـو | او | |
au | /ɔː/ | ـَو | اَو |
Golar Huruf | Uncuk | Tongah-tongah | Pangkal | Posay |
---|---|---|---|---|
چھوٹی يے Choṭī ye |
ـی | ـیـ | یـ | ی |
بڑی يے Baṛī ye |
ـے | ے |
Golar Huruf | Uncuk | Tongah-tongah | Pangkal | Posay |
---|---|---|---|---|
گول ہے Gol he |
ـہ | ـہـ | ہـ | ہ |
دو چشمی ہے Do-cašmi he |
ـھ | ـھـ | ھـ | ھ |
Bontuk | Urdu | Transkripsi |
Ortografi | ں | ṉ |
Bontuk Uncuk | میں | maiṉ |
Bontuk Tongah-tongah | کن٘ول | kaṉwal |
Iẓāfat
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Bontuk | Cuntuh | Transliterasi | Horti |
---|---|---|---|
ــِ | شیرِ پنجاب|sher-e-Panjāb | Singa Punjabi | |
ۂ | ملکۂ دنیا | malikā-e-dunyā | Ratu Dunia |
ئ | ولئ کامل | walī-e-kāmil | Wali say sampurna |
ۓ | مۓ عشق | mai-e-ishq | Inuman (anggur) cinta |
ئے | روئے زمین | rū-'e-zamīn | Pudak Bumi |
صدائے بلند | sadā-'e-buland | Suwara korcing |
Angka
[dandani | dandani sumbor]Hindu–Arab | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urdu | ۰ | ۱ | ۲ | ۳ | ۴ | ۵ | ۶ | ۷ | ۸ | ۹ |
Diwanagori | ० | १ | २ | ३ | ४ | ५ | ६ | ७ | ८ | ९ |
Rujukan
[dandani | dandani sumbor]- ↑ Robina Kausar; Muhammad Sarwar; Muhammad Shabbir (eds.). "The History of the Urdu Language Together with Its Origin and Geographic Distribution" (PDF). International Journal of Innovation and Research in Educational Sciences. 2 (1).
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 "Hindi" L1: 322 million (2011 Indian census), including perhaps 150 million speakers of other languages that reported their language as "Hindi" on the census. L2: 274 million (2016, source unknown). Urdu L1: 67 million (2011 & 2017 censuses), L2: 102 million (1999 Pakistan, source unknown, and 2001 Indian census): Ethnologue 21. Citakan:E21. Citakan:E21.
- ↑ Not to be confused with the Bihari languages, a group of Eastern Indo-Aryan languages.
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Kasalahan dilom pangutipan: Tag
<ref>
tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernamaGrierson
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 Kasalahan dilom pangutipan: Tag
<ref>
tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernamaRay2011
- ↑ Gangopadhyay, Avik (2020). Glimpses of Indian Languages. Evincepub publishing. p. 43. ISBN 9789390197828.
- ↑ Norms & Guidelines Arquivado 13 January 2014 en Wayback Machine., 2009. D.Ed. Special Education (Deaf & Hard of Hearing), [www.rehabcouncil.nic.in Rehabilitation Council of India]
- ↑ The Central Hindi Directorate regulates the use of Devanagari and Hindi spelling in India. Source: Central Hindi Directorate: Introduction Arquivado 15 April 2010 en Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language". www.urducouncil.nic.in.
- ↑ Zia, K. (1999). Standard Code Table for Urdu Arquivado 8 April 2019 en Wayback Machine.. 4th Symposium on Multilingual Information Processing, (MLIT-4), Yangon, Myanmar. CICC, Japan. Retrieved on 28 May 2008.
- ↑ UDHR - Hindi UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner
- ↑ UDHR - Hindi UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner
- ↑ Yamuna Kachru, 2006, Hindi John Benjamins Publishing, hal 17, ISBN 90-272-3812-X
- ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 "Urdu romanization" (PDF). The Library of Congress.
- ↑ Geographical Names Romanization in Pakistan. UNGEGN, 18th Session. Geneva, 12–23 August 1996. Working Papers No. 85 and No. 85 Add. 1.
- ↑ Tej K. Bhatia, Ashok Koul Colloquial Urdu: The Complete Course for Beginners 2015, Routledg, ISBN 978-1-317-30471-5 hal 41–42
- ↑ 17,0 17,1 Kasalahan dilom pangutipan: Tag
<ref>
tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernamauser.uni-hannover
- ↑ The far right column was the numbering in the old version of this wiki article. But the Urdu alphabet is very rarely shown with numbering, and the only time I've seen it numbered the order was different to this. Juni 2020
- ↑ "Extended Arabic Letter". unicode.org. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
- ↑ 20,0 20,1 "Based on ISO 8859-6". unicode.org. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
- ↑ Kasalahan dilom pangutipan: Tag
<ref>
tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernamabook: project fluency
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